fashions

The Italian peninsula during the years 1859-60-61 offered a particularly tempting field for adventure to ardent spirits in search of excitement; and, attracted partly by my sympathy with the popular movement, and partly by that simple desire, which gives so much zest to the life of youth, of risking it on all possible occasions, I had taken an active part, chiefly as an officious spectator, in all the principal events of those stirring years. It was in the spring of 1862 that I found matters beginning to settle down to a degree that threatened monotony;
and with the termination of the winter gaieties at Naples and the close of the San Carlo, I seriously bethought me of accepting the offer of a naval friend who was about to engage in blockade-running, and offered to land me in the Confederate States, when a recrudescence of activity on the part of the brigand bands in Calabria induced me to turn my attention in that direction. The first question I had to consider was, whether I should enjoy myself most by joining the brigands, or the troops which were engaged in suppressing them. As the former aspired to a political character, and called themselves patriotic bands fighting for their Church, their country, and their King--the refugee monarch of Naples--one could espouse their cause without exactly laying one's self open to the charge of being a bandit; but it was notorious in point of fact that the bands cared for neither the Pope nor the exiled King nor their annexed country, but committed the most abominable atrocities in the names of all the three, for the simple purpose of filling their pockets. I foresaw not only extreme difficulty in being accepted as a member of the fraternity, more especially as I had hitherto been identified with the Garibaldians; but also the probability of finding myself compromised by acts from which my conscience would revolt, and for which my life would in all likelihood pay the forfeit. On the other hand, I could think of no friend among the officers of the Bersaglieri and cavalry regiments, then engaged in brigand-hunting in the Capitanata and Basilicata, to whom I could apply for an invitation to join them.Under these circumstances, I determined to trust to the chapter of accidents; and armed with a knapsack, a sketch-book, and an air-gun, took my seat one morning in the Foggia diligence, with the vague idea of getting as near the scene of operations as possible, and seeing what would turn up. The air-gun was not so much a weapon of offence or defence as a means of introduction to the inhabitants. It had the innocent appearance of rather a thick walking-cane, with a little brass trigger projecting; and in the afternoon I would join the group sitting in front of the chemist's, which, for some reason or other, is generally a sort of open-air club in a small Neapolitan town, or stroll into the single modest cafe of which it might possibly boast, and toy abstractedly with the trigger. This, together with my personal appearance--for do what I would, I could never make myself
look like a Neapolitan would be certain to attract attention, and some one bolder than the rest would make himself the spokesman, and politely ask me whether the cane in my hand was an umbrella or a fishing rod  on which I would amiably reply that it was a gun, and that I should have much pleasure in exhibiting my skill and the method of its operation to the assembled company. Then the whole party would follow me to an open space, and I would call for a pack of cards, and possibly--for I was a good shot in those days pink the ace of hearts at fifteen paces. At any rate my performances usually called forth plaudits, and this involved a further
interchange of compliments and explanations, and the production of my sketch-book, which soon procured me the acquaintance of some ladies and an invitation as an English artist, to the house of some respectable citizen.

So it happened that, getting out of the diligence before it reached Foggia, I struck south, and wandered for some days from one little town to another, being always hospitably entertained, whether there happened to be an albergo or not, at private houses, seeing in this way more of the manners and customs of the inhabitants than would have been otherwise possible, gaining much information as to the haunts of the brigands, the whereabouts of the troops, and hearing much local gossip generally. The ignorance of the most respectable classes at this period was astounding; it has doubtless all changed since. I have been at a town of 2000
inhabitants, not one of whom took in a newspaper: the whole population, therefore, was in as profound ignorance of what was transpiring in the rest of the world as if they had been in Novaia Zemlia. I have stayed with a mayor who did not know that England was an island; I have been the guest of a citizen who had never heard of Scotland, and to whom, therefore, my nationality was an enigma: but I never met any one--I mean of this same class--who had not heard of Palmerston. He was a mysterious personage, execrated by the "blacks"and adored by the "reds." And I shone with a reflected lustre as the citizen of a country of which he was the Prime Minister. As a consequence, we had political discussions, which were protracted far into the night, for the principal meal of the twenty-four hours was a 10 o'clock P.M. supper, at which, after the inevitable macaroni, were many unwholesome dishes, such as salads made of thistles, cows' udders, and other delicacies,which deprived one of all desire for sleep. Notwithstanding which, we rose early, my hostess and the ladies of the establishment appearing in the early part of the day in the most extreme deshabille. Indeed, on one
occasion when I was first introduced into the family of a respectable citizen, and shown into my bedroom, I mistook one of two females who were making the bed for the servant, and was surprised to see her hand a little douceur I gave her as an earnest of attention on her part, to the other with a smile. She soon after wards went to bed: we all did, from 11 A.M. till about 3 P.M., at which hour I was horrified to meet her arrayed in silks and satins, and to find that she was the wife of my host. She kindly took me a drive with her in a carriage and pair, and with a coachman in livery.It was by this simple means, and by thus imposing myself upon the hospitality of these unsophisticated people, that I worked my way by slow degrees, chiefly on foot, into the part of the country I desired to visit and I trust that I in a measure repaid them for it by the stores of information which I imparted to them, and of which they stood much in need, and by little sketches of their homes and the surrounding scenery, with which 

I presented them. I was, indeed, dependent in some measure for hospitality of this description, as I had taken no money with me, partly because, to tell the truth, I had scarcely got any, and partly because I was afraid of being robbed by brigands of the little I had. I therefore eschewed the character of a _milordo Inglese but I never succeeded in dispelling all suspicion that I might not be a nephew of the Queen, or at least a very near relative of "Palmerston" in disguise. It was so natural, seeing what a deep interest both her Majesty and the Prime Minister took in Italy, that they should send some one incognito whom they could trust to tell them all about it.

Meantime, I was not surprised, when I came to know the disposition of the inhabitants, at the success of brigandage. It has never been my fortune before or since to live among such a timid population. One day at a large town a leading landed proprietor received notice that if he did not pay a certain sum in black-mail,I forget at this distance of time the exact amount,his farm or masseria would be robbed. This farm, which was in fact a handsome country-house, was distant about ten miles from the town. He therefore made an appeal to
the citizens that they should arm themselves, and help him to defend his property, as he had determined not to pay, and had taken steps to be informed as to the exact date when the attack was to be made in default of payment. More than 300 citizens enrolled themselves as willing to turn out in arms. On the day preceding the attack by the brigands, a rendezvous was given to these 300 on the great square for five in the morning, and thither I accordingly repaired, unable, however, to induce my host to accompany me, although he had signed
as a volunteer. On reaching the rendezvous, I found the landed proprietor and a friend who was living with him, and about ten minutes afterwards two other volunteers strolled up. Five was all we could muster out of 300. It was manifestly useless to attempt anything with so small a force, and no arguments could induce any of the others to turn out: so the unhappy gentleman had the satisfaction of knowing that the brigands had punctually pillaged his place, carrying off all his live stock on the very day and at the very hour they said they would. As for the inhabitants venturing any distance from town, except under military escort, such a thing was unknown, and all communication with Naples was for some time virtually intercepted. I was regarded as a sort of monomaniac of recklessness, because I ventured on a solitary walk of a mile or two in search of a sketch,--an act of no great audacity on my part, for I had walked through various parts of the country without seeing a brigand, and found it difficult to realise that there was any actual danger in strolling a mile from a moderately large town.

In the early days of the New England colonies no more embarrassing or hampering condition, no greater temporal ill could befall any adult Puritan than to be unmarried. What could he do, how could he live in that new land without a wife? There were no housekeepers--and he would scarcely have been allowed to have one if there were. What could a woman do in that new settlement among unbroken forests, uncultivated lands,without a husband? The colonists married early, and they married often. Widowers and widows hastened to join their fortunes and sorrows. The father and mother of Governor Winslow had been widow and widower

seven and twelve weeks, respectively, when they joined their families and themselves in mutual benefit, if not in mutual love. At a later day the impatient Governor of New Hampshire married a lady but ten days widowed. Bachelors were rare indeed, and were regarded askance and with intense disfavor by the entire community, were almost in the position of suspected criminals. They were seldom permitted to live alone, or even to choose their residence, but had to find a domicile wherever and with whomsoever the Court assigned.In Hartford lone-men, as Shakespeare called them, had to pay twenty shillings a week to the town for the selfish luxury of solitary living. No colonial law seems to me more arbitrary or more comic than this order issued in the town of Eastham, Mass., in 1695, namely:

"Every unmarried man in the township shall kill six blackbirds or three crows while he remains single; as a penalty for not doing it, shall not be married until he obey this order."

Bachelors were under the special spying and tattling supervision of the constable, the watchman, and the tithingman, who, like Pliable in Pilgrim's Progress, sat sneaking among his neighbors and reported their"scirscumstances and conuersation." In those days a man gained instead of losing his freedom by marrying."Incurridgement" to wedlock was given bachelors in many towns by the assignment to them upon marriage of home-lots to build upon. In Medfield there was a so-called Bachelor's Row, which had been thus assigned. In the early days of Salem "maid lotts" were also granted; but Endicott wrote in the town records that it was best to abandon the custom and thus "avoid all presedents & evil events of granting lotts vnto single maidens not disposed of." This line he crossed out and wrote instead, "for avoiding of absurdities." He kindly, but rather disappointingly, gave one maid a bushel of corn when she came to ask for a house and lot, and told her it would be a "bad president" for her to keep house alone. A maid had, indeed, a hard time to live in colonial days, did she persevere in her singular choice of remaining single. Perhaps the colonists "proverb'd with the grandsire phrase," that women dying maids lead apes in hell. Maidens "withering on the virgin thorn," in single blessedness, were hard to find. One Mistress Poole lived unmarried to great old age, and helped to found the town of Taunton under most discouraging rebuffs; and in the Plymouth church record of March 19, 1667, is a record of a death which reads thus:

"Mary Carpenter sister of Mrs. Alice Bradford wife of Governor Bradford being newly entered into the 91st year of her age. She was a godly old maid never married."

The state of old maidism was reached at a very early age in those early days; Higginson wrote of an "antient maid" of twenty-five years. John Dunton in his "Life and Errors" wrote eulogistically of one such ideal"Virgin" who attracted his special attention.It is true an old (or superanuated) Maid in Boston is thought such a curse, as nothing can exceed it (and looked on as a dismal spectacle) yet she by her good nature, gravity, and strict virtue convinces all (so much as the fleering Beaus) that it is not her necessity but her choice that keeps her a Virgin. She is now about thirty years (the age which they call a Thornback) yet she never disguises herself, and talks as little as she thinks, of Love. She never reads any Plays or Romances, goes to no Balls or Dancing-match (as they do who go to such Fairs) to meet with Chapmen. Her looks, her speech, her whole behavior are so very chaste, that but once (at Govenor's Island, where we went to be merry at roasting a hog) going to kiss her, I thought she would have blushed to death."Our Damsel knowing this, her conversation is generally amongst the women so that I found it no easy matter to enjoy her company, for most of her time (save what was taken up in needle work and learning French &c.) was spent in Religious Worship. She knew time was a dressing-room for Eternity, and therefore reserves most of her hours for better uses than those of the Comb, the Toilet and the Glass."And as I am sure this is most agreeable to the Virgin modesty, which should make Marriage an act rather of their obedience than their choice. And they that think their Friends too slowpaced in the matter give certain proof that lust is their sole motive. But as the Damsel I have been describing would neither anticipate nor contradict the will of her Parents, so do I assure you she is against Forcing her own, by marrying where she cannot love; and that is the reason she is still a Virgin."Hence it may be seen that though there was not in Boston the "glorious phalanx of old maids" of Theodore Parker's description, yet the Boston old maid was lovely even in colonial days, though she did bear the odious name of thornback.An English traveller, Josselyn, gives a glimpse of Boston love-making in the year 1663.On the South there is a small but pleasant Common, where the Gallants, a little before sunset, walk with their

Marmalet-Madams till the nine o'clock bell rings them home to their respective habitations."

This simple and quaint picture of youthful love in the soft summer twilight, at that ever beautiful trysting-place, gives an unwonted touch of sentiment to the austere daily life of colonial New England. The omnipotent Puritan law-giver, who meddled and interfered in every detail, small and great, of the public and private life of the citizen, could not leave untouched, in fancy free, these soberly promenading Puritan sweethearts. A Boston gallant must choose well his marmalet-madam, must proceed cautiously in his love-making in the gloaming, obtaining first the formal permission of parents or guardians ere he take any

step in courtship. Fines, imprisonment, or the whipping-post awaited him, did he "inveigle the affections of any maide or maide servant" by making love to her without proper authority. Numberless examples might be given to prove that this law was no dead letter. In 1647, in Stratford, Will Colefoxe was fined £5 for "laboring to invegle the affection of Write his daughter." In 1672 Jonathan Coventry, of Plymouth town, was indicted for "making a motion of marriage" to Katharine Dudley without obtaining formal consent. The sensible reason

for these courtship regulations was "to prevent young folk from intangling themselves by rash and inconsiderate contracts of maridge." The Governor of Plymouth colony, Thomas Prence, did not hesitate to drag his daughter's love affairs before the public, in 1660, by prosecuting Arthur Howland for "disorderly and unrighteously endeavouring to gain the affections of Mistress Elizabeth Prence." The unrighteous lover was fined £5. Seven years later, patient Arthur, who would not "refrain and desist," was again fined the same amount; but love prevailed over law, and he triumphantly married his fair Elizabeth a few months later. The

marriage of a daughter with an unwelcome swain was also often prohibited by will, "not to suffer her to be circumvented and cast away upon a swaggering gentleman.On the other hand, an engagement of marriage once having been permitted, the father could not recklessly or unreasonably interfere to break off the contract. Many court records prove that colonial lovers promptly resented by legal action any attempt of parents to bring to an end a sanctioned love affair. Richard Taylor so sued, and for such cause, Ruth Whieldon's father in Plymouth in 1661; while another ungallant swain is said to have sued the maid's father for the loss of time spent in courting. Breach of promise cases were brought against women by disappointed men who had been "shabbed" (as jilting was called in some parts of New England), as well as by deserted women against men.But sly Puritan maids found a way to circumvent and outwit Puritan law makers, and to prevent their unsanctioned lovers from being punished, too. Hear the craft of Sarah Tuttle. On May day in New Haven, in
1660, she went to the house of a neighbor, Dame Murline, to get some thread. Some very loud jokes were exchanged between Sarah and her friends Maria and Susan Murline--so loud, in fact, that Dame Murline testified in court that it "much distressed her and put her in a sore strait." In the midst of all this doubtful fun Jacob Murline entered, and seizing Sarah's gloves, demanded the centuries old forfeit of a kiss. "Wherupon,"writes the scandalized Puritan chronicler, "they sat down together; his arm being about her; and her arm upon his shoulder or about his neck; and hee kissed her, and shee kissed him, or they kissed one another, continuing in this posture about half an hour, as Maria and Susan testified." Goodman Tuttle, who was a man of dignity and importance, angrily brought suit against Jacob for inveigling his daughter's affections; "but Sarah being asked in court if Jacob inveagled her, said No." This of course prevented any rendering of judgment against the unauthorized kissing by Jacob, and he escaped the severe punishment of his offence. But the outraged and baffled court fined Sarah, and gave her a severe lecture, calling her with justice a "Bould Virgin." She at the
end, demurely and piously answered that "She hoped God would help her to carry it Better for time to come.And doubtless she did carry it better  for at the end of two years, this bold virgin's fine for unruly behavior being still unpaid, half of it was remitted.Of the etiquette, the pleasures, the exigencies of colonial "courtship in high life," let one of the actors speak
for himself through the pages of his diary. Judge Sewall's first wife was Hannah Hull, the only daughter of Captain Hull of Pine Tree Shilling fame. She received as her dowry her weight in silver shillings. Of her wooing we know naught save the charming imaginary story told us by Hawthorne. The Judge's only record is
this: 

"Mrs. Hannah Hull saw me when I took my Degree and set her affection on me though I knew nothing of it till after our Marriage."

She lived with him forty-three years, bore him seven sons and seven daughters, and died on the 19th day of October, 1717.

Of course, though the Judge was sixty-six years old, he would marry again. Like a true Puritan he despised an unmarried life, and on the 6th day of February he made this naive entry in his diary: "Wandering in my mind whether to live a Married or a Single Life." Ere that date he had begun to take notice. He had called more than once on Widow Ruggles, and had had Widow Gill to dine with him; had looked critically at Widow Emery,and noted that Widow Tilley was absent from meeting; and he had gazed admiringly at Widow Winthrop in
"her sley," and he had visited and counseled and consoled her ere his wife had been two months dead, and had given her a few suitable tokens of his awakening affection such as "Smoking Flax Inflamed," "The Jewish Children of Berlin," and "My Small Vial of Tears;" so he had "wandered" in the flesh as well as in the mind.Such an array of widows! Boston fairly blossomed with widows, the widows of all the "true New England men" whose wills Sewall had drawn up, whose dying bedsides he had blessed and harassed with his prayers,whose bodies he had borne to the grave, whose funeral gloves and scarves and rings he had received and apprized, and whose estates he had settled. Over this sombre flower-bed of black garbed widows, these hardy perennials, did this aged Puritan butterfly amorously hover, loth to settle, tasting each solemn sweet,calculating the richness of the soil in which each was planted, gauging the golden promise of fruit, and perhaps longing for the whole garden of full-blown blossoms. "Antient maides" were held in little esteem by him; not one thornback is on his list.
Not only did he look and wander, but all his friends and neighbors arose and began to suggest and search for a suitable wife for him, with as officious alacrity as if he needed help, which he certainly did not. In March Madam Henchman strongly recommended to him "Madam Winthrop, the Major General's widow." This recommendation was very sweet to the widower, who had turned his eyes with such special approval on this special widow, and further and warm encouragement came quickly.

If digital technology defines the current era for music, globalization defines it for fashion. The growing web of communications networks bringing the world closer together radically has redefined the ways in which fashion designers interact, trends spread throughout the world and the fashion industry organizes itself.

As with music, fashion encompasses a large gray area between the extremes of consumers and producers. This gray area, in which creative thinkers draw upon an ever growing and constantly circulating pool of common memes, is arguably the source of new ideas and trends within the fashion industry. Sociological literature on innovation describes it as an interactive process, dependent upon cumulative knowledge and the capacity for interchange between individuals, institutions and organizations. Academic research on fashion echoes this definition. As Vincent B. Leitch writes, "innovation in fashion is less a matter of creativity ex nihilo than of mutation and pastiche. In fashion today,innovation continues to thrive as its central practices foresight, flexibility and cooperation  flourish in a fairly open and unfettered creative commons.

Jewelry repair is a profession just like other technical professions and you’ll need both equipment and training to do the work well. You may want to entrust this work to the professionals, especially for your engagement ring or family heirloom.Provided below are damage prevention and repair tips for simple damages.You should only attempt the repair if you’re confident. And again, don’t try this on your family heirloom!



Disclaimer: We cannot be held responsible for any damage that may occur on your side. Try this at your own risk!

•  To reduce the need for jewelry repair, do periodic inspection and evaluations. Inspect your jewelry every two to three months or more if you are very active and like to wear your jewelry often.

•  Check to see if your jewelry is becoming worn or dull. Invest in magnifying glass or jeweler's loop so that you can find problem areas.Check for flat or worn-out spots where constant rubbing can happen.Inspect for thinning or cracking that can lead to bigger problems later.

•  The number one cause of lost gemstones is worn or broken prongs or tips.Check for rattling or movement among gemstones. Inspect in all areas around stones to see if settings are tight and secure. Use a pair of tweezers or a toothpick and gently nudge stones to check for any wiggle or movement. In some cases, impacted dirt under gemstone settings can actually keep stones intact under pressure until they are cleaned, then they can become very loose and fall out if not inspected.

Did you know that some jewelry boxes can actually do more harm than good? Are you storing your jewelry the right way? Improper storage may cause damage to your engagement rings and other jewelry. Here are some tips on storage.



Jewelry Boxes Tips

Although it is ideal to keep your precious pieces in a jewelry box, you have to choose a suitable one. Some jewelry boxes do not have securing areas to keep your jewelry from rolling, scratching or bumping into each other, so always separate your jewelry during storage. If possible, wrap them up individually in a soft cloth or pouch before storing. It is also important to make sure that the jewelry box is suitable for your type of jewelry. For example, some jewelry boxes are designed specifically for rings, some for necklaces and bracelets.

Storage Tips For Silver Jewelry


Many people know that sterling silver jewelry tends to tarnish easily. Tarnish is the result of a natural reaction between silver and the air and environment. So, to slow down the tarnishing, you can store your silver jewelry in an airtight container or zip lock bag. Other tips to consider:

•  Store silver jewelry together with anti-tarnish strips. These will absorb the agents that cause silver to tarnish.

• •Anti-tarnish pouch and cloth are also available from jewelry stores. Basically, they function like anti-tarnish strips.

• You can also use silica gel as it will absorb the moisture in the air and slow down tarnishing.

1. Before you start cleaning jewelry always do a quick visual check to see if there are any loose or damaged gemstones; cracked or broken metal; bent or warped prongs/tips; discolored or pitting metal. You wouldn’t want to cause any further damage.

2. Jewelry should be removed before showering or cleaning. A film can form if the soap is not washed off completely. This film will then become a magnet for dirt, dust and other contaminants.

3. Use a nub free, 100% cotton cloth and gently wipe the piece clean using only the soft pads of your fingers.

4. You can also purchase jeweler's cloths from jewelry stores. Be sure to use fresh cloths since the dirt and grit left on the cloth from a previous use will now leave scrapes and pits in the piece you are trying to clean and polish.

5. Commercial cleaners can be purchased at jewelry stores. Always remember to read the instructions on the commercial cleaners first before you attempt cleaning.

6. Never clean your jewelry in bleach! Doing this will literally breakdown your jewelry. Bleach as an oxidizing agent that will react to the metal, causing it to become very brittle. Similarly, avoid swimming pools and bathing in hot tubs as chlorine products are added to prevent bacteria growth.

7. Besides chlorine bleach, denatured alcohol, turpentine, acetone, and ammonia are harmful too. These chemicals can dull or even pit the surface on softer gemstones.

8. For best results, polish silver or gold with a jewelry polishing cloth. Use of tissue or paper towels can cause scratches because of the fibers in these products.

9. An old toothbrush is very handy. Make sure that you use an old, soft bristle brush. Lightly brush at hard to reach areas while frequently applying cleaning solution.

10. Never use toothpaste or other abrasives to clean metal or stones. Some websites recommend toothpaste as a cleaner, but this is not an accepted practice by fine jewelers. The abrasives in toothpaste can damage the
surface of the metal. Toothpaste will also abrade the surface on amber, lapis, turquoise and other soft stones.

11. An ultrasonic vibrating cleaner may be appropriate for some jewelry, but always read the instructions first. Ultrasonic vibrating machines can loosen or damage precious gemstones while cleaning the jewelry. And the
chemicals are not recommended for pearls and many other fine stones. Also never ultrasonic different metals at the same time, silver can tarnish gold if cleaned together.

12. Be careful when cleaning costume or vermeil jewelry, as it's very sensitive to any cleaning solutions. Costume or vermeil jewelry is a base metal with another layer of more precious metal (e.g. Gold) plated over or absorbed into it. This layer is not made for abrasive cleaning.

13. Always use warm not HOT water. Cleaning agents can be absorbed and react to very hot water causing jewelry to discolor. Sterling silver is especially sensitive to hot water and can discolor in a heartbeat.

For centuries, clothing design and production were under the purview of mostly anonymous dressmakers and seamstresses, and were not yet dictated by the proclamations of famous, individual designers. In the 18th and 19th centuries in the U.S. and Europe, clothes had not only symbolic influence but also economic currency. For many working-class families, clothing comprised a significant percentage of their material worth. In France, a suit purchased at the time of a young working-class man's marriage literally was expected to last a lifetime, and worn to church, weddings and funerals. In England, clothing was somewhat limited to the working classes, and low income families formed clubs to save enough money to purchase clothes.40
Until the 18th century, fashion was the province of the upper class, and production was done by hand. Advances in technology and industrial manufacturing in mid-18th century Europe engendered the rise of the textile and apparel industries. The industrial revolution also meant a rising standard of living for the working and middle classes, suddenly allowing them to buy much less expensive, mass-produced versions of Parisian haute couture.At the end of the 19th century, with the advent of mass production, clothes became even cheaper and more accessible to the working classes. As a result, clothing and fashion first became democratized, and, as Diane Crane argues, this evolution was most evident in the United States because of its fluid social structure.41 By the early 20th century in America, consumers were buying haute couture copies in the recently founded department stores and retail catalogs. Some were sold as approved "reproductions" of European designs but the majority consisted of unauthorized knockoffs.Despite France's dominance in the decorative arts (e.g., furniture, porcelain and silver), it was Charles Frederick Worth, an Englishman living in Paris in the mid-19th century, who first established the concept of the fashion designer as an autonomous artist. Worth founded his maison couture, the House of Worth, a name that simultaneously established the centrality of the designer to fashion and conferred brand-name status on the designer himself.Succeeding Worth at the forefront of fashion design was Paul Poiret, who not only waged war against the corset but also established what is now thought of as haute couture. In the 20th century, many of today's most famous and most expensive brands were established, including Chanel, Balenciaga and Dior. As with Worth and Poiret, these brands almost were inseparable from the designers, who often expanded beyond haute couture into other artistic disciplines and entertainment endeavors. For example, Coco Chanel often dabbled in costume design. She designed the costumes for Jean Cocteau's 1924 operette-danse, Le Train bleu, and again for Gloria Swanson in the 1931 film Tonight or Never. She also collaborated with Jean Renoir in 1938, designing the costumes for La Marseillaise.Thus, like music, fashion design is an aesthetic practice taking place within artistic communities. However, unlike most music, fashion must meet the added requirement of functionality.42 Over the past century, fashion has undergone a transformation in everything but name. The history of the fashion industry in the U.S., in contrast to that of music, reflects a continuing resistance to oligopolistic control and strict intellectual property controls. While there is a widening gap between music's social origins and its commercial role, in fashion the two coexist in relative peace.

For many decades, haute couture dictated fashion trends as designers, on high, came down from the proverbial mountain twice a year to dictate to their upper-class customers, decreeing the height of their hemlines, the silhouette of their shoulders, and the appropriateness – or not – of pleats. Design houses usually were owned by their designers, clothes were still produced by craftspeople domestically and the fashion community was fairly small, centered in Paris. Thus, while styles changed from season to season, the fundamental structure of the business remained stable.By the 1960s, haute couture's stranglehold on fashion was beginning to weaken. Hollywood films, television, rock music, youth culture, the women's movement, revolutionary politics all served to destabilize the top-down fashion paradigm, with trends generated by consumers (particularly the younger ones) rather than the large couture houses. The further democratization of fashion during this time could be seen in the establishment of numerous casual wear companies such as the Gap (1969), Ann Taylor (1954) and J. Crew (1983). Such changes in the fashion industry were precipitated by the underlying cultural, political and social shifts following World War II. American consumers, finally liberated from the shackles of the Great Depression and infused with a sense of self-sufficiency and national pride, adopted a far more active role. They no longer were content simply to accept the dictates of Paris, Milan and New York. Consumers were usurping the autonomy of producers, and the relationship between the two has been complex and tenuous ever since.If these changes reflected social evolution, they also were enabled by legal developments. During the 1940s in the United States, several crucial legal decisions established the validity and value of knockoffs, sampling and reappropriation in the fashion industry in the name of healthy competition. For instance, in 1940 the Millinery Creators' Guild v. FTC decision determined that piracy in fashion triggers a downward force on pricing, making it a socially desirable form of competition. Similarly, a year later, the judge in Cheney Bros. v. Doris Silk Corp. rejected a request to prohibit design piracy on the grounds that such a prohibition would grant a de facto monopoly to designers, who formally are denied patent and copyright protection. Thus, the fashion industry consistently and intentionally has been denied the legal protections afforded to other design industries, in order to maintain a healthy creative ecosystem and the continuing availability of diverse, inexpensive products to the American consumer base.

The changes in the fashion industry during the mid-to-late 20th century contributed to a creative climate in which designers influence and draw influence from one another. Fashion is a chaotic if highly stratified industry, and the directional flow of aesthetics is now top-down, bottom-up and side-to-side. Ideas flow in every direction, so any attempt to pinpoint the creative forbears of any given garment (unless it is an exact copy) is an exercise in frustration and futility.